TUKATAE SILAHA ZA NYUKLIA

Silaha za nyuklia ni tisho kubwa kwa uhai wa binadamu na dunia yote kwa jumla. Kumaliza silaha hizo ni kazi inayoendelea kuwa ya dharura.

TUKATAE SILAHA ZA NYUKLIA

Mataifa mengi ya ulimwengu yamejitolea kwa dhati kwa lengo hili, kwa kuitikia na kutia sahihi Mkataba wa Kupiga Marufuku Silaha za Nyuklia ambao ulianza kutekelezwa 2021.

Hata hivyo, mataifa tisa bado yanamiliki silaha hizo hatari zinazoweza kusababisha uharibifu mkubwa na maangamizi, na hivyo kukaidi kanuni mpya za kimataifa na mapenzi ya raia wao. Kila mwaka, nchi hizo zinafuja mabilioni ya dola kwa kuimarisha na kupanua viwanda na hifadhi zao za zana hizo za vita.

Mashindano makali ya uundaji wa zana za nyuklia yanaendelea. Tisho la kutumiwa kwa silaha za nyuklia, iwe ni makusudi au kimakosa na kwa bahati mbaya, lingali kubwa sasa kama ambavyo limekuwa hapo awali. Nyakati zote tupo katika hali ambapo uamuzi wowote mbaya unaweza kusababisha maangamizi ulimwenguni.

Ili kuzuia uharibifu usio na kifani ambao silaha za nyuklia zinakusudiwa kusababisha, serikali hazina budi kuchukua hatua za dharura kuangamiza zana hizo kama hakikisho la pekee la kukomesha kuendelea kuzitumia na kuzifanyia majaribio.

Lakini hilo litafanyika kwa sharti kwamba watu wote kila mahala wataamka na kusisitiza hatua zifaazo zichukuliwe.

Silaha hatari zaidi ulimwenguni

Hiroshima na Nagasaki

Urithi wa majaribio ya nyuklia

Silaha za nyuklia zilizopo

The case for abolition

A ban on nuclear weapons

Action for abolition

About the campaign

Silaha hatari zaidi ulimwenguni

Silaha za nyuklia ndizo haribifu zaidi, zisizobagua na za kinyama zilizowahi kuundwa. Bomu moja lina nguvu tosha za kuharibu jiji nzima na kusababisha maafa ya makumi ya maelfu, iwapo sio mamilioni ya watu.

Shirika la Kimataifa la Msalaba Mwekundu limezitaja silaha za nyuklia kuwa na “nguvu haribifu za kipekee kwa mateso yasiyo na kifani zinazosababisha … na ni tisho kwa mazingira, vizazi vijavyo na hasa maisha ya binadamu”.

Silaha hizo hutoa kiasi kikubwa cha mnururisho, huchafua hewa, ardhi, maji na miili yetu na kusababisha madhara yanayoenea kutoka taifa moja hadi jingine na vizazi hadi vingine.

Ilimradi silaha hizo zipo, pana hatari kubwa kuwa zitatumika tena, na matokeo yake yatakuwa maangamizi, ikiwa ni pamoja na kwa watu wa mataifa yasiyohusika na mapigano ambapo zinatumika.

Athari za silaha za nyuklia

Joto

Silaha ya nyuklia ikilipuliwa, hutoa joto kali. Karibu kila kitu na kila mtu katika kitovu cha mlipuko hugeuka mara moja kuwa jivu na mvuke.

Wimbi kubwa la moto ambao kipimo cha halijoto ya kitovu chake huwa ni zaidi ya digrii milioni moja kwa vipimo vya Celsius, hupaa juu angani na halijoto chini ardhini hufika digrii maelfu kadhaa na huwa juu zaidi kuliko ya jua.

Joto hilo kali huwasha moto unaoenea mbali, unarusha moshi wenye sumu hewani pamoja na gesi zinazoweza kuunguza. Moshi na gesi hizo zikiungana husababisha dhoruba au mvua kubwa ya moto.

Hata watu walio umbali wa makumi ya kilomita kutoka eneo la mlipuko wa bomu la nyuklia hupata majeraha kali na hatari ya kuchomeka yawezayo kuua, ilhali walio mbali zaidi hupoteza uwezo wa kuona kutokana na nuru kali ya silaha hizo.

Mlipuko

Silaha ya nyuklia hutoa pia ukuta mkubwa unaoenda kasi wa mvuke wenye nguvu nyingi ujulikanao kama wimbi la kishindo linalosafiri mbali kwa kilomita nyingi.

Wimbi hilo hurusha watu hewani, linawakosesha fahamu, linapasuapasua miili yao na kuharibu mapafu kabisa.

Majengo katika maeneo makubwa hubomolewa na watu wengi hupondwa na kuachwa maiti. Vitu vingine vilivyofunguka hupeperushwa angani kama makombora.

Hata magorofa makubwa yaliyokorogewa na mengine ya chuma huharibiwa na nguvu za mlipuko.

Mnururisho

Mfululizo wa madhara yanayosababisha mlipuko hutoa kiasi kikubwa cha mnururisho unaobadilika kuwa ioni, unapenya ndani ya miili ya watu, unaharibu au unadhuru viini vyao na kusababisha magonjwa.

Hata katika umbali wa kilomita kadhaa kutoka eneo la mlipuko, watu hupata mnururisho mkubwa kiasi cha kusababisha vifo kutokana na sumu yake kali.

Ishara zake ni pamoja na kutapika, ufizi wa meno kuvuja damu, kuharisha na nywele zote kung’oka. Waathiriwa wengi hufa miezi michache baada ya shambulizi.

Baadhi ya wanaopatwa na madhara hayo hupona lakini hufa baada ya miaka kadhaa au hata miongo kutokana na kansa na magonjwa mengine yanayohusishwa na madhara ya muda mrefu ya mnururisho.

Baadhi ya manusura huonyesha kasoro za kromosomu, na madhara mengine ya kinasaba yawezayo kupasishwa vizazi vijavyo.

Cheche za mnururisho zinazotokana na mlipuko wa bomu la nyuklia

Silaha ya nyuklia husababisha pia wingu kubwa lenye umbo la uyoga ambalo hunyonya vumbi na takataka zenye uwezo wa kunururisha, zinakuwa kama mnara wa cheche, na kurushwa hewani.

Mkondo wa upepo hutawanya cheche hizo hewani na hatimaye zinaanguka duniani na kuenea pakubwa.

Cheche hizo za mnunurisho zinazotokana na mlipuko wa silaha ya nyuklia husababisha hatari za afya hapo hapo na pia baada ya muda mrefu hata kwa watu walio mbali na kitovu cha mlipuko. Baadhi ya atomi nururishi huendelea kuwa hatari kwa muda mrefu, zinachafua udongo, maji na bidhaa za chakula.

Sumaku umeme

Silaha ya nyuklia ikilipuliwa katika maeneo ya juu, hutoa mapigo mazito ya sumaku umeme ambayo huharibu vifaa vya kielektroniki katika sehemu kubwa. Mawasiliano ya simu, uwezo wa kutumia intanet na teknolojia za huduma za benki huvurugwa kabisa.

Madhara hayo yalionekana kwa mara ya kwanza katika enzi ya majaribio ya silaha za nyuklia angani na maeneo yaliyo juu kutoka usawa wa bahari. Marekani ilipofanya jaribio la kulipua silaha ya nyuklia katika anga za juu umbali wa kilomita 400 juu ya kisiwa cha matumbawe cha Johnston katika Bahari ya Pacific, mlipuko uliharibu taa za barabara na simu katika Hawaii, umbali wa zaidi ya kilomita 1,450.

Athari za mlipuko katika jaribio la kulipua silaha za nyuklia kwenye jumba la majaribio lililopo Jimbo la Nevada, Marekani. Picha na: Serikali ya Marekani

Hatari kubwa kwa watoto

Watoto wachanga na wakubwa huwa hatarini kubwa ya kuathiriwa na silaha za nyuklia.

Ni rahisi kwao kufa kutokana na majeraha ya kuchomeka wakilinganishwa na watu wazima (kwani ngozi zao ni nyembamba na nyepesi), majeraha kutokana na milipuko (ikitiliwa maanani udhaifu wa miili yao) na ugonjwa uletwao na mnururisho mkali (kwani wana chembe nyingi za uhai zinazokua na kugawanyika kasi).

Kadhalika, huwa sio rahisi wao kujinusuru kutoka kwa majengo yaliyobomoka na kuchomeka au kuchukua hatua nyingine kufuatia mlipuko kwa lengo la kuongeza nafasi zao za kuponea na kuendelea kuishi.

Mtoto apokea matibabu ya majeraha ya kuchomeka kufuatia kuangushwa kwa bomu la nyuklia katika Nagasaki mnamo 1945. Picha na: Yasuo Tomishige

Majira ya baridi kali ya nyuklia na njaa

Silaha za nyuklia ndizo zana za pekee zilizowahi kuundwa zenye uwezo wa kuharibu aina zote za uhai na hali nyingine za maisha zisizoelezeka kwa urahisi duniani.

Silaha mia moja au zaidi zikitumia kushambulia miji mikubwa, masizi na moshi kutoka kwa mawimbi ya moto zinaweza kuweka pazia la kufunika dunia yote na kuzuia miale ya jua kwa zaidi ya mwongo mmoja, hivyo basi kusababisha kushuka kwa halijoto duniani – athari ijulikanayo kama majira ya baridi kali ya nyuklia.

Ikiwa imetumbukizwa katika giza totoro, dunia inaweza kufikia kiwango cha kuganda, hata katika mazingira ya joto. Mimea ya chakula itaangamizwa na kilimo duniani kuporomoka, na kusababisha njaa kubwa na kuvunjika kwa jamii.

Majanga ya maradhi ya kuambukizana na ugomvi kuhusu rasilmali haba zitaenea. Watu wanaokabiliwa na utapia mlo watakuwa hatarini kubwa ya kufa.

Hata inayojulikana kama vita ndogo ya silaha za nyuklia – ikihusisha sehemu ndogo tu ya silaha za nyuklia duniani – inaweza kusababishia watu duniani hatari ya kufa njaa.

Vita kama hiyo inaweza kudhoofisha ozoni, isababishe ongezeko kubwa la aina fulani za kansa na kuangamiza viumbe na mimea wa baharini na majini. Aina nyingi za mimea na wanyama zitakabiliwa na tisho la kufa na ulimwengu utapatwa na uharibifu usioweza kugeuzika.

Athari kwa hali ya hewa ulimwenguni

Silaha aina nyingi za nyuklia hutumika.

Masizi na ukungu wa moshi hufunika miale ya jua.

Halijoto duniani hushuka kwa kiwango kikubwa.

Shughuli za kilimo huporomoka.

Mamilioni ya watu hufa njaa.

Kulazimisha watu kuhama na kuporomoka kwa uchumi

Kwenye vita ya nyuklia, mamilioni ya watu wakifikiwa na cheche za mnururisho zinazotokana na mlipuko wa bomu watalazimika kuhamia nchi jirani wakitafuta makao ya dharura, chakula na maji yasiyo na sumu, pamoja na huduma za matibabu. Idadi ya watu wanaotafuta makao nje ya makwao inaweza kuwa kiasi kikubwa ambacho hakijawahi kushuhudiwa.

Utumiaji wa silaha aina nyingi za nyuklia unaweza kuvuruga biashara ya kimataifa na mawasiliano ya simu, redio au televisheni, intaneti na mitandao ya jamii, na pengine kusababisha kuporomoka kwa uchumi duniani, na hivyo kuzorotesha umaskini na kurudisha nyuma malengo ya maendeleo ya binadamu kwa miongo mingi.

Hakuna taifa wala mtu yeyote binafsi awezaye kujikinga na athari za silaha za nyuklia.

Hiroshima na Nagasaki

Watu zaidi ya robo milioni waliuawa wakati Marekani ilipoangusha bomu mbili za nyuklia mijini miwili ya Japan ya Hiroshima na Nagasaki mnamo Agosti 1945, ikiwa ni mara ya kwanza na ya pekee kwa silaha za nyuklia kutumika vitani.

Watu wengi walichomeka na kugeuka majivu papo hapo. Wengine walikufa baada ya kuteseka kwa maumivu makubwa baada ya saa, siku au wiki kadhaa kufuatia mashambulizi hayo kwa kuchomeka, majeraha ya milipuko na magonjwa yaletwayo na mnururisho mkali. Wengine wasiohesabika walikufa baada ya miaka kwa kansa zinazosababishwa na mnururisho mkali, na magonjwa mengine.

Ili kuzuia kutokea tena kwa maovu kama hayo ya kikatili, ni lazima mataifa yachukue hatua za dharura za kumaliza silaha za nyuklia.

Katika Hiroshima na Nagasaki, uharibifu usio na kifani ulitokea na maafa makubwa yalifuatia na kuifanya hali ionekane kama kwamba siku ya kiyama ilikuwa imewadia: viwanja vya shule vilifunikwa na maiti za watoto, na miili ya wengine waliokaribia kufa. Akina mama walikuwa bado wameshika maiti za watoto wao wachanga. Matumbo ya watu wengine na vipande vya nyama za miili yao zilining’inia nje.

Wengi walikufa bila huduma zozote za kuwapunguzia maumivu na mateso waliyoyapata kwani ni hospitali chache zilizobaki, dawa na vifaa vingine vya matibabu ziliharibiwa, na madaktari wengi na wauguzi waliuawa ama kujeruhiwa. Waliofika katika miji hiyo kutoa misaada baada ya milipuko walikuwa wanahatarisha maisha yao kwa sababu ya masalio ya mnururisho.

Idadi kubwa ya waathiriwa – zaidi ya asilimia 90 – walikuwa ni raia, wakiwemo watoto takribani 38,000. Shambulizi la Hiroshima likitokea, wanafunzi karibu 8,400 wa shule ya upili ya daraja la chini walikuwa nje ya madarasa wakiunda fataki kama hatua ya raia kujikinga; 6,300 kati yao waliuawa.

Mabaki ya jiji la Hiroshima lililolipuliwa 1945. Picha na: Serikali ya Marekani

Onyesho mojawapo katika Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum.

Kitovu cha milipuko

Katika kila jiji, waliokuwa karibu na kitovu cha milipuko, walikuwa na nafasi ndogo sana ya kunusurika. Karibu kila mtu aliyekuwa umbali wa katika kilomita 1.2 kutoka kwenye kitovu na ambaye hakuwa amejikinga kwa vyovyote na athari za bomu alikufa papo hapo ama baada ya wiki kadhaa.

Halijoto ardhini kwenye kitovu ilifikia digrii kati ya 3,000 na 4,000 kwa vipimo vya Celsius, huku watu waliokuwa umbali wa kilomita hadi 3.5 wakipatwa na majeraha ya kuchomeka. Mitetemeko mizito iliharibu karibu majengo yote ya mbao ndani ya umbali wa kilomita mbili.

Hata katika umbali wa kilomita moja, watu waliopata kiasi kikubwa cha mnururisho unaobadilika kuwa chuma na kuingiza sumu mwilini walikufa. Watu wengi waliokuwa mbali zaidi waliaga dunia kutokana na athari za baadaye za kupatwa na mnururisho.

Athari za milipuko

Machafuko na vurumai zilizofuatia milipuko hiyo ni pamoja na wazazi waliokuwa tayari kufanya lolote wakiwatafuta watoto wao, nao watoto wakitafuta wazazi. Baadhi yao walipata tu mabaki ya mali binafsi ya wapendwa wao; wengine hawakupata chochote.

Juhudi za kukutanisha tena familia zilitatizwa na ukweli kwamba wengi walipatwa na majeraha mengi ya kuchomeka kiasi kwamba hawangetambulika kwa urahisi.

“Baada ya muda, nilichungulia nje ya makao ya kujisalimisha kutokana na mashambulizi ya mabomu kutoka angani. Niliona watu wametawanyika kote uwanjani. Uwanja karibu wote ulikuwa umefunikwa na watu. Wengi walionekana kama wamekufa kwani walitulia tuli. Hata hivyo, kulikuwa na waliokuwa wakitupatupa miguu ama kuinua mikono hapa na kule.”

– Fujio Tsujimoto, umri wa miaka mitano, Nagasaki

Baadhi ya manusura hawakuwa na majeraha yaliyoonekana lakini waliugua ghafla na kuaga dunia. Vifo vyao viliwashangaza waliofika kwanza kuwasaidia ambao hawakuwa na habari kwamba silaha mpya yenye madhara ya mnururisho ilitumika.

Wanawake wengi wajawazito katika miji hiyo walitunguliwa mimba ama wakazaa watoto waliokufa wakiwa wachanga, kwani mnururisho wa mabomu ulikuwa umeingia katika mimba. Kasoro za kuzaliwa, ikiwa ni pamoja na ugonjwa wa kichwa kidogo, zikawa ni kawaida miongoni mwa watoto walioathiriwa na mabomu wakiwa ndani ya mimba za mama zao.

Nagasaki ilivyokuwa mwezi mmoja baada ya kushambuliwa. Picha na: Serikali ya Marekani

Mvulana huyu wa Nagasaki apokea msaada wa chakula baada ya jiji hilo kushambuliwa. Picha na: Yosuke Yamahata

Baiskeli ya magurudumu matatu ya Shinichi

Hiroshima ikishambuliwa, Shinichi Tetsutani aliyekuwa na umri wa miaka mitatu alikuwa nje ya nyumba yao akifanya alichokifurahia zaidi – kuendesha baiskeli yake ya magurudumu matatu.

Alipata majeraha makubwa ikiwa ni pamoja na kuchomeka mwili wote, na aliaga dunia saa chache baadaye. Dada zake wawili, Michiko na Yoko, waliuawa pia.

Miaka mingi baadaye, baba yao alisema: “Hili halifai tena kuwatendekea watoto. Tafadhali fanyeni juhudi za kuleta amani duniani na kujenga mahala pa watoto kuchezea mpaka nyoyo zao ziridhike.”

Baiskeli ya magurudumu matatu ya Shinichi iliyochomeka imehifadhiwa katika Jumba la Makumbusho la Hiroshima Peace Memorial, na mchongo wake unapatikana katika Jumba la Makumbusho la International Red Cross na Red Crescent Museum jijini Geneva.

Imekuwa ni ishara inayotia uchungu ya mateso waliyoyapata watoto kwenye mashambulizi ya mabomu ya nyuklia.

Picha na: Jumba la Makumbusho la Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum, lililotolewa na Nobuo Tetsutani.

Dada wawili wa Hiroshima

Kimino Wataoka aliyekuwa na umri wa miaka miwili, na dadake Hirono aliyekuwa na miaka mitano, walikuwa nyumbani na wazazi wao wakati Hiroshima iliposhambuliwa. Wote wanne waliuawa.

Dada yao mwingine, Kayoko, aliyekuwa karibu na kitovu cha mlipuko, alikufa pia. Ni dadao mkubwa pekee, Chizuko, ambaye alinusurika.

Yaaminika picha hii ya Kimino (kushoto) na Hirono (kulia) ilipigwa siku moja kabla ya shambulio la bomu ya nyuklia. Picha na: Miho Iwata

Kumulikwa na miale ya bomu

Toru Ikemoto alikuwa na umri wa miaka saba, na dadake alikuwa na miaka tisa wakati Hiroshima ilipoangamizwa. Wote wawili walikuwa ndani ya nyumba yao, umbali wa karibu kilomita moja kutoka kwa kitovu cha mlipuko.

Ndani ya siku nne au tano baada ya shambulizi, nywele zao zilianza kung’oka, wakapatwa na homa na kuvuja damu kwenye ufizi – ishara za kuwa na sumu ya mnururisho mkali.

Ingawa wote wawili waliponea madhara hatari ya mwanzo mwanzo ya magonjwa, hatimaye waliaga dunia kutokana na athari za baadaye za mnururisho. Toru alikufa akiwa na umri wa miaka 11 naye Aiko akiwa na miaka 29.

Ndugu hawa wawili Toru (kushoto) na Aiko (kulia) wakiwa katika Hosptali ya Shirika la Msalaba Mwekundu ya Hiroshima Oktoba 1945. Picha na: Shunkichi Kikuchi

Walioponea

Wale ambao, kwa bahati nzuri, walioponea kufuatia mashambulizi ya mabomu ya nyuklia katika Hiroshima na Nagasaki, walipewa jina la Kijapani hibakusha, au “watu walioathiriwa na mlipuko”.

Wengi walivumilia maumivu na usumbufu maishani yao yote kutokana na majeraha ya mwili na akili. Baadhi yao waliachwa na makovu makubwa mwilini na kwenye nyuso zao au kuishi kwa miongo wakiwa na vigae vya vioo ndani ya miili yao.

Wanawake walikabiliwa na ugumu wa kipekee na makovu ya fedheha kwa kuhofia kurithisha watoto wao na wajukuu hitilafu za kizazi zilizosababishwa na mabomu hayo.

Ndani ya miaka michache baada ya mashambulizi hayo, walionusurika walianza kuugua magonjwa ya kansa na maradhi mengine kwa kasi ya juu ambayo haikuwa ya kawaida kutokana na athari za baadaye za mnururisho. Mnamo miaka ya mwanzo, visa vya kansa ya damu (lukemia) vilikuwa kawaida.

Ili kuutahadharisha ulimwenghu kuhusu hatari za silaha za nyuklia, manusura wengi wameeleza kuhusu yaliyowakumba 1945. Baadhi yao waliokuwa watoto wakati wa mashambulizi hayo wangali hai hata sasa na wameendeleza kazi ya kuueleza ukweli kuhusu madhara ya zana hizo.

Ujumbe huo umekuwa wazi na wa kutegemewa kwa miongo mingi: Binadamu na silaha za nyuklia hawawezi kuishi pamoja kwa amani.

Mnamo 2024, Nihon Hidankyo – muungano wa mashirika ya Japan yanayowakilisha manusura – lilishinda Tuzo la Amani la Nobel “kwa juhudi zake kujenga ulimwengu usio na silaha zozote za nyuklia na kwa kubainisha wazi kupitia kwa ushahidi wa manusura kuwa silaha za nyuklia hazifai kutumika tena kamwe”.

Utetezi wa kijasiri na thabiti wa manusura umewahamasisha watu wengi ulimwenguni kujiunga na wimbi la kutetea kumalizwa kwa zana za nyuklia.

Manusura na mtetezi

Mvulana wa umri wa miaka 16 kwa jina, Sumiteru Taniguchi aliponea shambulizi la bomu ya nyuklia la Nagasaki. “Mara tu nuru ya ghafula ya mlipuko ilipotokea, nilibanduliwa kutoka nyuma ya baiskeli yangu na kubwagwa chini ardhini,” akasimulia. Aliponyanyua kichwa chake, aliona watoto wote waliokuwa wakicheza karibu naye wakiwa maiti.

Ingawa alikuwa umbali wa karibu kilomita mbili kutoka kwenye kitovu cha mlipuko, alipata majeraha mabaya ya kuchomeka mgongoni, mkono wa kushoto na mguu. Muda mfupi baadaye, majeraha hayo yaliambukizwa vidudu na kuenea, na ikabidi akae hospitalini kwa karibu miaka minne akitibiwa, ikiwa ni pamoja na miezi 21 aliyolazimika kulala kifudifudi.

Uchungu kutoka kwa majeraha hayo haukuisha. Alijitolea kwa sehemu kubwa ya maisha yake kutetea kupigwa marufuku kwa silaha za nyuklia.

Sumiteru Taniguchi atazama picha yake iliyopigwa 1946, inayoonyesha makovu mgongoni wake ya bomu la Nagasaki. Picha na: Yuriko Nakao

Urithi wa majaribio ya nyuklia

Ili kuimarisha uharibifu na uwezo wa kuua wa nguvu za nyuklia walizonazo, na kutoa onyo kwa washindani wao, mataifa yenye silaha za nyuklia yamefanya majaribio zaidi ya 2,000 ya kulipua silaha za nyuklia kote ulimwenguni tangu 1945.

Kwa kuachilia hewani na baharini kiasi kikubwa cha mnururisho, majaribio hayo ya sumu yamesababisha majanga ya kansa na magonjwa mengine ya kudumu. Maeneo makubwa ya ardhi yangali si salama kuishi, hata baada ya miongo mingi ya kufungwa kwa maeneo ya majaribio.

Wiki tatu baada ya mashambulizi ya mabomu ya nyuklia katika Hiroshima na Nagasaki, Serikali ya Marekani ilifanya jaribio la kwanza la kulipua silaha za nyuklia katika Jimbo la New York, zoezi lililopewa jina la siri “Trinity”. Moto mkubwa kutoka kitovu cha mlipuko wa bomu uligeuza mchanga kuwa vioo, ukaangaza milima ya karibu na kurusha wingu la mabaki ya nururishi lenye umbo la uyoga umbali wa kilomita 12 hewani.

Waliokuwa wakifanya kazi katika maeneo ya majaribio na jamii jirani walipatwa na uharibifu mkuwa ambao athari zake zinaendelea kuonekana mpaka wa leo.

Hali imekuwa ni hiyo hiyo kwa wanaofanya kazi ama kuishi katika sehemu unakoelekea upepo na mito katika maeneo mengine zaidi ya 60 ulimwenguni ya kufanyia majaribio ya silaha za nyuklia, kuanzia jangwani za Australia na Algeria hadi maeneo makubwa yenye nyasi ya Kazakhstan na visiwa vya matumbawe vya Pacific.

Iroji Kebenli, akiwa na umri wa miaka 13 alipopata majeraha ya kuchomwa na nururishi wakati Marekani ilipofanya jaribio la silaha ya nyuklia katika Visiwa vya Marshall mnamo 1954. Picha na: Serikali ya Marekani

Wingu lenye umbo la uyoga kufuatia mlipuko wa majaribio wa bomu la nyuklia. Picha na: Serikali ya Marekani

Maeneo ya kufanyia majaribio ya silaha za nyuklia

Silaha za nyuklia zimefanyiwa majaribio katika Algeria, Australia, China, India, Kazakhstan, Kiribati, Ma’ohi Nui (French Polynesia), Visiwa vya Marshall, Korea Kaskazini, Pakistan, Russia, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Marekani na Uzbekistan.

Majaribio ya kulipua silaha za nyuklia angani – ikiwa ni pamoja na 500 yaliyofanyika kuanzia 1945 hadi 1980 – yalikuwa hasa na athari mbaya, yakasambaza chembe nururishi mbali na katika sehemu pana. Silaha zote hizo zikichanganywa zilikuwa na uwezo wa kuharibu ulio sawa na wa mabomu 29,000 ya nyuklia kama lililongushwa Hiroshima.

Hivi leo, kila mtu aliye hai anabeba ndani ya mwili wake chembe nururishi kutoka kwa majaribio yanayofanywa angani na hivyo kuongeza hatari ya magonjwa. Madaktari wa matibabu wanabashiri kwamba baada ya muda, majaribio yaliyopita yatasababisha vifo vya mapema visivyopungua milioni nne kutokana na kansa na magonjwa mengine.

Majaribio ya kulipua silaha za nyuklia baharini na chini ya ardhi yamekuwa pia na madhara ya muda mrefu kwa afya na mazingira.

Kwa kujali kuhusu athari za majaribio ya silaha za nyuklia ulimwenguni, maandamano makubwa katika sehemu nyingi za dunia yalifanyika mwisho mwisho wa nusu ya kwanza ya karne ya 20. Maandamano hayo yalilazimisha viongozi kushauriana kuhusu upigaji marufuku kwa kiasi wa silaha hizo mnamo 1963. Uharamishaji kamili mnamo 1996 ulifuatia. Hatua hizo mbili zimesaidia kuzuia majaribio ya silaha za nyuklia ulimwenguni.

Lakini athari za majaribio ya mapema kwa maisha ya watu na mazingira dhaifu zitaendelea kuonekana kwa vizazi vijavyo. Jamii ya kimataifa ina jukumu sio tu la kuhakikisha kwamba uharibifu kama huo hautokei tena lakini kujitahidi pia kuakisi madhara yaliyotendeka.

Manusura wachache wa majaribio ya silaha za nyuklia popote ulimwenguni wamefidiwa kwa mateso yao, na juhudi za kusafisha maeneo ya zamani ya kufanyia majaribio hazitoshi. Katika baadhi ya maeneo, maporomoko ya majengo na miundo msingi mingine ni hatari inayoendelea ya utoaji sumu zaidi.

Mlipuko wa majaribio uliofanywa 1971 na Ufaransa katika Moruroa Atoll iliyomo Mā’ohi Nui. Picha na: Serikali ya Ufaransa

Shimo la katikati ya mlima lililochimbuliwa na mlipuko wa jaribio la bomu la nyuklia lililofanywa na Russia katika Kazakhstan. Picha na: CTBTO

Ubaguzi wa jamii za asili katika majaribio ya silaha za nyuklia

Imani zinazoegemea ubaguzi kulingana na asili za watu zimeendelea kuzingatiwa katika kufikia maamuzi ya kufanya majaribio ya silaha za nyuklia, huku serikali na waliokatalia mawazo ya nguvu za kikoloni wakiendelea kuamini kuwa watu wa asili wanaweza kutolewa mhanga, na ardhi zao takatifu hazina thamani na ni za mbali.

“Ardhi yetu, bahari yetu, jamii zetu na miili yetu zinabeba ‘urithi’ wa majaribio hayo hatari sasa na kwa vizazi vijavyo visivyojulikana,” Karina Lester, mwanamke wa jamii ya Yankunytjatjara Anangu kutoka Australia, kwa niaba ya makundi ya jamii asili, akatoa ushahidi katika kikao cha Umoja wa Mataifa mnamo 2017.

Kwenye harakati za kutafuta “silaha hatari zaidi zenye uwezo wa kusababisha uharibifu mkubwa na maafa mengi” wenye mamlaka wameendelea kuwatendea watu wa jamii za asili sawa ‘nungubandia’ kwa kuwatumia kwa majaribio, akasema. Ni nadra sana kwao kuombwa kibali, sembuse kutakiwa kutoa idhini, na walipewa kiasi kidogo au kunyimwa kinga kabisa.

Urithi wa sumu wa majaribio ya silaha za nyuklia umepokonya jamii nyingi uhusiano na maisha yao ya kitamaduni, hawawezi kurudi katika maeneo yao takatifu ya mababu zao ama kujipatia riziki kutoka kwa ardhi zao, mito na bahari, kama ambavyo wamekuwa wakifanya kwa karne nyingi.

Australia: Kupokonywa na bomu uwezo wa kuona

Mnamo 1953, wakati Yami Lester akiwa na umri wa miaka 10, Uingereza ilianza kufanya majaribio ya silaha za nyuklia katika Emu Field karibu na nyumbani kwao, sehemu ya mbali na miji ya Australia.

Anaikumbuka takataka ya nururishi, au ‘ukungu mweusi’ ikiifunika anga. Ukungu huo uIiwasha macho yake na miaka minne baadaye, alikuwa amepoteza kabisa uwezo wa kuona.

“Nilikuwa tu nacheza na watoto wengine. Ni wakati huo ambapo bomu lililipuka.” Akavuta kumbukizi. “Ninaikumbuka sauti iliyotokea, ilikuwa sauti isiyo ya kawaida, haikuwa ya juu, sio kama sauti ambayo nimewahi kusikia awali. Wakati huo huo ardhi ilitetemeshwa na tungehisi sehemu yote ikisonga.”

Saa kadhaa baadaye, kila mtu katika jamii yake alianza kuugua. “Sote tulikuwa tunatapika; tukaharisha, ngozi zikatuwasha, na macho yakauma,” akasema. “Baadhi ya wazee miongoni mwetu walikufa.”

Hatimaye, Yami akawa mtetezi wa watu asili ya Australia walioathiriwa na majaribio hayo. Hata baada ya kifo chake 2017, watoto wake wameendeleza juhudi zake kutetea haki.

Picha na: Jesse Boylan

Kazakhstan: Msanii aliyezaliwa bila mikono

Karipbek Kuyukov alikulia kijijini Yegyndybulak, karibu na Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan – eneo kubwa zaidi la Urusi la majaribio ya silaha za nyuklia. Anakumbuka akiwa mtoto vile fanicha, vyungu, vikombe na sahani zilitetemeka kila mara mlipuko wa jaribio la bomu la nyuklia ukitokea.

Kabla hajazaliwa, wazazi wake walizoea kwenda juu ya kilima cha karibu na nyumbani kwao ili kujionea vizuri wingu kubwa angavu lenye umbo sawa na uyoga likipaa juu angani.

“Hawakujua kuhusu hatari zilizokabili afya zao na athari angamizi za jinai waliyokuwa wakifanyiwa,” akakumbuka.

Karipbek alizaliwa 1968 bila mikono. Lakini hilo halikumzuia kuibuika kuwa msanii msifika anayetumia miguu yake na mdomo kuchora kwa rangi. Ujumbe mkuu wa kazi zake za sanaa ni kupinga utumiaji wa silaha za nyuklia.

“Kazi yangu maalumu katika ardhi hii ni kufanya kila niwezalo kwa watu walio kama mimi kuwa wahanga wa mwisho wa majaribio ya silaha za nyuklia,” akasema. “Sitaki majaribio hayo yafanyike tena popote au wakati wowote, na kokote katika dunia hii … Anga na ibaki ikiwa safi na watoto wetu wawe na afya nzuri!”

Kuanzia 1949 hadi 1989, Urusi ilifanya majaribio zaidi ya 450 ya mabomu ya nyuklia katika Semipalatinsk, karibu robo ya majaribio yote yaliyofanyika ulimwenguni.

One of ​​Karipbek Kuyukov’s artworks, titled “Fear”.

Visiwa vya Marshall: Vinavyotawaliwa na nururishi

Nerje Joseph alikuwa na umri wa miaka saba mnamo 1954 wakati Marekani ilipofanya jaribio lake kubwa zaidi la kulipua bomu ya nyuklia katika zoezi chapa, “Castle Bravo”, umbali wa kilomita 160 kutoka nyumbani kwake, Rongelap Atoll, ndani ya Visiwa vya Marshall.

Mlipuko huo ulikuwa mkubwa kuliko ilivyotarajiwa na ulisababisha kuenea kwa sumu zaidi. Anga ilibadilika kuwa rangi ya chungwa kisha waridi. Hakuna yeyote miongoni mwa wenyeji wa kisiwa hicho cha matumbawe aliyefahamu kilichofanyika.

Saa kadhaa baadaye, majivu nururishi na vipande vya matumbawe zikaanza kunyeshea nyumba zao, zikachafua ngozi zao, maji na chakula. Muda mfupi baadaye wakaanza kupata ishara za magonjwa yaletwayo na mnururisho uliopita kiasi.

Nywele zote za Nerje ziling’oka, na sawa na karibu kila mtu kisiwani, akapata majeraha ya kuchomeka mwilini.

Siku kadhaa baadaye, wenye mamlaka kutoka Marekani waliwahamisha wakazi wa Rongelap na kuwapeleka kisiwani kingine cha matumbawe kwa sababu ya hatari kubwa kwa afya zao kutokana na cheche za mnururisho kufuatia mlipuko wa bomu la nyuklia. Lakini miaka mitatu baada ya kuhamishwa, wakuu hao wa Marekani waliwahimiza kurudi Rongelap, kwani walitaka kuchunguza madhara ya afya ambayo yangesababishwa na mabaki ya mnururisho.

“Data ya aina hiyo haijawahi kupatikana,” akasema afisa mmoja wa Marekani wakati huo. “Ingawa watu hawa hawaishi kama watu wastaarabu wa nchi za magharibi, ni kweli kwamba wanakaribia sana kufanana nasi ukiwalinganisha na panya.”

Uamuzi wa kuwarudisha Rongelap wanakisiwa hao uliwaletea balaa. Walikumbana na ongezeko la aina tofauti za kansa, mimba kuharibika, watoto kuzaliwa wakiwa wafu na wengine wakiwa na dosari za kimaumbile.

Kutokana na mkusanyiko wa chembe za mnururisho zenye uzito tofauti na chembe nyingine, ikawa ni lazima Nerje afanyiwe upasuaji kuondoa kikoromeo chake. Alitamani warejelee siku za zamani za furaha kabla majaribio ya silaha za nyuklia hayajafanyika.

Kati ya 1946 na 1958, Marekani ilikuwa imefanya majaribio 67 ya kulipua mabomu ya nyuklia katika Visiwa vya Marshall. Jaribio la Castle Bravo pekee lilisababisha mlipuko uliokuwa na uzito mara 1,000 ukilinganishwa na wa bomu la Hiroshima.

Mpaka wa leo, visiwa vingi vya matumbawe si salama kwa binadamu kuishi, wala kuendesha kilimo au uvuvi.

Nerje Joseph aonyesha upara aliopata baada ya nywele kung’oka, na majeraha ya kuchomeka miguu kutokana na nururishi. Picha na: Serikali ya Marekani

Vianzo vingine vya madhara

Vipengele vingine vya uundaji wa silaha za nyuklia – kuanzia uchimbaji wa madini ya urani hadi utupaji wa taka za mnururisho – vina madhara haribifu pia kwa afya ya binadamu na mazingira.

Kwenye migodi ya urani – ambapo utaratibu wa kuunda silaha za nyuklia unaanzia – uchafuzi wa nururishi na kemikali kutokana na mabaki ya takataka hupenya mchangani na njia za kupitia maji, unaathiri wafanyakazi na jamii za karibu. Hakuna mgodi popote duniani ambapo takakata zimeondolewa baada ya uchimbaji kumalizika.

Uchafuzi wa nururishi umetokea pia katika tanuri za nyuklia ambazo hutumika kutengeneza chembe za silaha za nyuklia. Kiwanda cha nishati ya nyuklia cha Windscale, Uingereza, kilichomeka kwa siku tatu mnamo 1957 na kurusha nyoya za mnururisho katika maeneo mengi ya Ulaya. Maziwa yote ya ng’ombe kutoka mashambani ya karibu yaliharibiwa.

Jamii nyingi ulimwenguni hukabiliwa pia na changamoto zisizoisha zinazohusiana na uhifadhi salama wa kiasi kikubwa cha takataka za nyuklia zilizokusanywa kutoka kwa uundaji wa makumi ya maelfu ya silaha za nyuklia tangu 1945. Takataka hiyo itabaki kuwa hatari kwa miaka mingine maelfu.

Waandamanaji wanaopinga uundaji na utumiaji wa silaha za nyuklia katika Jimbo la Arizona, Marekani. Picha na: Jack Cohen-Joppa

Silaha za nyuklia zilizopo

Hivi leo, mataifa tisa yana maelfu kadhaa ya silaha za nyuklia, hali ambayo ni tisho la kipekee kwa maisha ya binadamu popote. Mamia ya silaha hizo huwekwa katika tahadhari ya kiwango cha hali ya juu, tayari kutumika ndani ya dakika chache.

Zinahifadhiwa katika vituo vya kurushia makombora, ndani ya ndege za kivita na manowari zinazoweka doria baharini nyakati zote. Baadhi yake zinaweza kusafiri umbali wa maelfu ya kilomita kupitia mabara ili kufikia zinakolengwa.

[FACT]

Ukweli: Mataifa tisa ulimwenguni ambayo yanamiliki silaha za nyuklia yana takribani silaha 12,241.

[/FACT]

Mengi ya mataifa hayo yana mabomu yawezayo kusababisha uharibu mkubwa na maafa mengi kuliko mabomu yaliyoangushwa Hiroshima na Nagasaki katika mwanzo wa enzi ya utumiaji wa silaha za nyuklia. Mabomu kubwa zaidi yana nguvu za zaidi ya tani milioni moja, au megaton moja, ya kemikali ya kisasi inayolipuka, TNT.

Hata mabomu yanayokusudiwa kutumika katika harakati za kivita, yanaweza kusababisha mlipuko wenye nguvu mara 20 zaidi ya bomu lililoangushwa Hiroshima.

Manowari moja yenye silaha za nyuklia inaweza kubeba makombora dazeni moja au zaidi, kila moja ikiwa na kichwa cha nyuklia, yenye uwezo wa pamoja wa kuharibu miji zaidi ya 100.

Introduction

People living near military bases where nuclear weapons are deployed face an especially high risk of becoming victims of a nuclear attack, or suffering harm from an accidental nuclear explosion. Due to government secrecy, some of these people may even be unaware of their proximity to the weapons.

Most nuclear weapons are not simply in storage. They are actively deployed – poised for use at any moment – and governments are engaged in costly programmes to enhance and expand their arsenals, under the guise of “modernisation”.

Some nuclear-armed nations are developing new types of nuclear weapons, testing new systems for their delivery and expanding their doctrines for possible nuclear use. All appear intent on retaining their nuclear forces for the indefinite future.

A Russian nuclear missile at a military parade in 2023. Credit: Russian government

US nuclear missiles on display at a museum. Credit: US government

Mataifa yenye silaha za nyuklia

Mataifa tisa yana silaha za nyuklia hivi leo: Marekani, Russia, China,Ufaransa, Uingereza, India, Pakistan, Israeli na Korea Kaskazini. Russia na Marekani ndizo zina hifadhi kubwa zaidi ya silaha za nyuklia.

Mataifa yanayokula njama za kudumisha silaha za nyuklia

Ingawa ni mataifa tisa yenye silaha za nyuklia, mengine zaidi ya 30 yanaunga mkono kubakizwa kwa silaha hizo na uwezekano wa kuzitumia, ikiwa ni pamoja na madai ya kulindwa na ‘mwavuli wa kinyuklia’ wa nchi marafiki zenye hifadhi za nyuklia.

Kwa mfano, mataifa yote wanachama wa Umoja wa Kujihami wa Nchi za Ulaya (NATO), yameidhinisha hadharani silaha za nyuklia. Baadhi yao yameipatia Marekani hifadhi ya mabomu ya nyuklia katika nchi zao – ikiwa ni pamoja na Ubelgiji, Ujerumani, Italia, Uholanzi na Türkiye – na kutoa ndege na watu wanaohitajika kuziangusha. Belarus inahifadhi silaha za Russia.

Baadhi ya mataifa hubadilishana ripoti za kijasusi kwa shabaha ya kuamua panapohitaji kulengwa kwa silaha za nyuklia, ama kuruhusu meli zenye silaha za nyuklia kupitia baharini zao na kutia nanga bandarini zao au ndege zenye silaha za nyuklia kuingia anga ya nchi hizo na kuongezwa mafuta katika viwanja vyao vyao ndege.

Matendo yote hayo ya kula njama huendeleza hatari za silaha za nyuklia na kudhoofisha juhudi za kumaliza silaha hizo.

Waandamanaji katika Ujerumani waweka uzio wa kuzunguka kambi ya kijeshi inayohifadhi mabomu ya nyuklia ya Marekani. Picha na: Ralf Schlesener

Wasiwasi kuhusu ueneaji

Kukataa kwa nchi zenye silaha za nyuklia kupunguza na hatimaye kumaliza zana hizo kumeimarisha hatari ya mataifa zaidi, na hata wahusika ambao si serikali, kupata silaha za nyuklia siku moja. Kupiga hatua katika upunguzaji wa silaha hizo ni hali muhimu ya kuzuia kuenea kwake.

Ingawa hatua muhimu zimechukuliwa kuzuia ueneaji wa silaha hizo, hakuna uhakika kwamba zitaleta matokeo yanayotakiwa. Taifa lolote lenye uwezo wa urani au kutayarisha upya mafuta ya nyuklia ili kutoa plutoni linaweza, kwa kudhania tu, kuunda silaha ya nyuklia ndani ya miezi kadhaa.

Afrika Kusini, Israeli, India, Pakistan na Korea Kaskini zilijipatia silaha za nyuklia kwa kutumia vifaa na nyenzo zilizodaiwa kulenga amani, na hivyo kukariri hatari za kuendelea kuongezwa kwa silaha hizo chini ya mipango ya nguvu za nyuklia.

Kilo kadhaa za urani iliyostawishwa au kemikali ya plutoni zinatosha kuunda bomu moja la nyuklia. Hivi leo, mamia ya tani za nyenzo hizo zimewekwa akiba ulimwenguni, na nyingine nyingi bado zinaundwa. Ni lazima tatizo hilo lishughulikiwe Ili kufanikisha upunguzaji wa silaha hizo za vita.

The case for abolition

To protect humanity from the catastrophic, irreversible harm that nuclear weapons are designed to inflict, governments must work with urgency to eliminate them.

Tens of thousands of nuclear weapons have already been dismantled in response to calls from people everywhere for abolition. One country, South Africa, has eliminated its nuclear weapons completely; dozens of others have abandoned plans to acquire them.

At the height of the Cold War, there were around 70,000 nuclear weapons, with major reductions in the global stockpile achieved from the mid-1980s to the early 2000s.

More recently, however, programmes for warhead dismantlement have ground to a halt, and some nuclear-armed nations are now expanding their arsenals at unprecedented rates. Not one of them has outlined a plan for total disarmament.

But the vast majority of the world’s nations remain strongly opposed to nuclear weapons and want them abolished without delay.

It is not enough just to stop the spread of these weapons to more nations, or to place limits on the circumstances in which they might be used. Given the gravity of the threat they pose to all life on our planet, abolition is the only answer.

An Artists Against the Bomb installation. Credit: Miki Anagrius

Immoral, illegal and undemocratic

Nuclear weapons inflict death and destruction on a massive scale, and threaten the very survival of humanity. The indiscriminate killing and maiming of hundreds of thousands of people can never be morally justified.

Any use of nuclear weapons would breach international law and constitute a war crime of the highest order. Weapons with catastrophic effects can never serve a legitimate military or strategic purpose.

All around the world, including in nuclear-armed nations, opinion polls indicate strong public support for abolition. Governments that continue to develop nuclear arsenals are acting contrary to the will – and best interests – of their citizens.

Everyone, everywhere stands to benefit from the elimination of these most horrific weapons.

The growing risk of use

The risk of a nuclear weapon being used today, whether by accident or design, is as high as it has ever been – and only appears to be increasing.

This is due to factors such as the dire international security environment, heightened tensions among nuclear-armed nations, the build-up of their nuclear forces, and the erosion of international norms and institutions.

The pursuit of offensive cyber-capabilities, autonomous technologies and artificial intelligence in the military domain makes the threat even greater.

Maintaining nuclear weapons on high alert – ready for use within minutes of a warning of an incoming attack – is a particularly dangerous practice. Once a nuclear-tipped missile has been launched, it cannot be recalled. It must proceed to its target, even if the launch was based on false information.

In the fog of war, leaders are prone to acting irrationally and unpredictably. The potential for misunderstandings is especially great in stressful, chaotic situations.

It is all too easy to foresee how a moment of panic or ruthlessness, a bruised ego or miscommunication, could lead to global catastrophe, as the vast power to unleash nuclear devastation is vested in just a few individuals.

On multiple occasions during the Cold War, the world came perilously close to experiencing a full-scale nuclear war. The most infamous incident was the Cuban missile crisis of 1962 involving the United States and the Soviet Union.

The fact that nuclear weapons have not been used in conflict since 1945 has more to do with good luck than good management. And sooner or later, our luck will run out – unless effective action is taken to eliminate this menace.

Nuclear deterrence

Nuclear-armed nations often invoke the theory of “nuclear deterrence” to justify maintaining nuclear arsenals. They argue that their weapons are solely for the purpose of deterring other nations from initiating a nuclear attack, and as such contribute to peace and stability.

Most nations, however, reject that logic and view nuclear deterrence as a dangerous, misguided and unsustainable approach to security. Moreover, it is inherently aggressive, as it relies on a constant, credible threat to inflict death and destruction on a large scale.

Contrary to the claims of deterrence proponents, the existence of nuclear weapons in the world has not prevented conflicts, including acts of aggression against nuclear-armed nations. In fact, nuclear weapons have made wars and confrontations more likely by exacerbating tensions and enabling coercion and blackmail.

Deterrence theory suggests that nuclear weapons are a legitimate and desirable source of security. This encourages proliferation and impedes disarmament.

Accidents and errors

There is not only a risk of the deliberate use of nuclear weapons; they could also be detonated as a result of human error, technical malfunction, cyber-attack, misinterpreted warnings or unauthorised access to command and control systems.

The numerous accidents involving nuclear weapons since 1945, as well as incidents where they were almost used due to errors, demonstrate the alarming potential for unintended disaster.

In 1968, for example, a US aircraft carrying four nuclear bombs caught fire and crashed near Greenland, contaminating the surrounding area with plutonium. Luckily, though explosions did occur, no nuclear chain reaction was triggered.

In 1995, Russian officials mistook the launch of a Norwegian scientific rocket for a US submarine-launched ballistic missile. The Russian president retrieved the launch codes for a retaliatory strike but ultimately determined that it was a false alarm.

Other deeply troubling incidents have involved the loss of nuclear weapons at sea, nuclear-armed submarines colliding, flying swans and light reflected off clouds being mistaken for nuclear-tipped missiles, and the inadvertent insertion of training tapes into an operational computer, which simulated an incoming nuclear attack.

In 1961, two nuclear bombs fell to the ground in the US state of North Carolina when a bomber lost a wing. “By the slightest margin of chance, literally the failure of two wires to cross, a nuclear explosion was averted,” said Robert McNamara, the US secretary of defence at the time. Credit: US government

No humanitarian response

The use of even a single nuclear weapon anywhere in the world would overwhelm health infrastructure, making an effective humanitarian response impossible.

Hospitals and pharmacies, fire-fighting equipment, communications and transportation systems would all lie in rubble throughout a zone of complete destruction extending for kilometres.

Those attempting to provide relief to the sick and wounded would be exposed to high levels of radioactivity, risking their own lives.

The International Committee of the Red Cross has repeatedly warned that there is no adequate response capacity in the event of the use of a single nuclear weapon, let alone a full-scale nuclear war, and no such capacity could ever be developed.

Similarly, the World Health Organisation has concluded: “Whatever remained of the medical services in the world could not alleviate the disaster in any significant way.”

A Hiroshima survivor’s depiction of a relief station in 1945. The wounded died one after another. Credit: Fumiko Yamaoka

Can bunkers help?

Building more nuclear bunkers, or fallout shelters, is not the solution. Popular during the Cold War, they give citizens a false sense of security about the survivability of nuclear war.

In the event of a nuclear attack, it is unlikely that anyone would receive advance warning, so there would be no opportunity to seek cover.

Furthermore, many of the bunkers close to ground zero would become furnaces, killing everyone inside. Indeed, some nuclear weapons are specifically designed to penetrate deep into the earth to destroy bunkers.

Those who did manage to find a bunker in time and survive inside would face a dangerous, radioactive hellscape upon exiting, with slim chances of being rescued.

A waste of resources

Each year, nuclear-armed nations spend many billions of dollars enhancing and expanding their nuclear forces – money that could be invested in health care, education, poverty alleviation and action to address the climate crisis.

[FACT]

Fact: Nuclear-armed nations spend approximately US$100 billion annually on their nuclear arsenals.

[/FACT]

In some nations, corporations reap large profits from supporting the development and production of nuclear weapons. Think-tanks and universities are also involved and benefit financially.

Ending this life-endangering work would free up resources for other purposes and allow some of the brightest scientific minds to contribute to a more peaceful world – rather than perfecting their militaries’ ability to kill and destroy on a massive scale.

A nuclear-armed submarine under construction in the United Kingdom. Credit: UK government

A barrier to peace

Nuclear weapons do nothing to address any of today’s security challenges. On the contrary, they make many of them worse or are their main cause.

Achieving abolition would allow for more harmonious relations among nations and create opportunities for greater international cooperation, benefiting people everywhere – including, not least of all, in nations currently armed with nuclear weapons.

It would be a global public good of the highest order, serving both national and collective security interests.

Gender critique

Leaders who express a willingness to use nuclear weapons are often lauded as masculine, strong and decisive, whereas those who support disarmament are dismissed as feminine, weak and emotional.

Furthermore, public debates and decision-making about nuclear weapons tend to be dominated by men.

Actively challenging these notions and ensuring greater gender diversity and inclusion would improve the prospects for success in disarmament.

A ban on nuclear weapons

In 2017, following a decade of advocacy by the International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN) and its partners, 122 nations voted to adopt a landmark treaty to outlaw the world’s worst weapons, known as the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW). It entered into force in 2021.

Before that point, nuclear weapons were the only weapons of mass destruction not subject to a comprehensive, globally applicable ban. Thus, the new treaty filled a major gap in international law.

It was born out of deep concern at the growing threat that nuclear weapons pose to human survival, the environment, socio-economic development, the global economy, food security, and the health and welfare of current and future generations.

It is not only the first multilateral treaty to prohibit nuclear weapons outright, but also the first to establish frameworks for verifiably eliminating nuclear weapons and for assisting victims of their use and testing.

[FACT]

Fact: To date, 74 nations have ratified or acceded to the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, with a further 25 having signed it. More should follow their lead.

[/FACT]

Though no nuclear-armed nation has joined the TPNW to date, it remains an indispensable tool for strengthening the global taboo against the use of nuclear weapons and spurring long-overdue action for disarmament.

History has shown that the prohibition of certain types of weapons facilitates progress towards their elimination. Weapons that have been outlawed are increasingly seen as illegitimate, losing their political status and, along with it, the resources for their production.

Introduction

“The entry into force of the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in January 2021 was an extraordinary achievement and a step towards the eventual elimination of nuclear weapons.”

– António Guterres, UN secretary-general, 2021

As more and more nations join the TPNW over time, its norms will grow stronger, and the pressure on nuclear-armed nations to conform to them will intensify. To date, over half of the world’s nations have joined the treaty.

It offers a powerful alternative to a world in which threats to inflict mass destruction are allowed to prevail. It presents a pathway forward at a time of alarming crisis.

A high-level signing ceremony for the TPNW in 2017. Credit: UN Photo

Main provisions of the TPNW

Prohibitions

The TPNW prohibits nations from ever developing, testing, producing, acquiring, stockpiling, transferring, using or threatening to use nuclear weapons. They are also banned from hosting another nation’s nuclear weapons on their territory, or assisting or encouraging others to engage in activities proscribed by the treaty.

Framework for elimination

The treaty establishes a legal framework for the verifiable and irreversible elimination of nuclear weapon programmes and associated facilities. A nuclear-armed nation that joins it must remove its nuclear weapons from operational status immediately and destroy them in accordance with a negotiated, time-bound plan, within a deadline of up to 10 years. Alternatively, a nation can destroy its nuclear weapons before joining the treaty and have this verified by a designated international authority.

Victim assistance and environmental remediation

The treaty requires nations to assist victims of the use and testing of nuclear weapons, including with medical care, rehabilitation and psychological support. They must also take measures towards remediating areas contaminated with radiation from nuclear explosions. International cooperation is key to the effective implementation of these provisions.

Building on other treaties

The TPNW reinforces earlier treaties relating to nuclear weapons, including the Non-Proliferation Treaty of 1968, which aims to limit the number of nations possessing nuclear weapons and advance the goal of disarmament.

As affirmed by the International Court of Justice in 1996, nations have a legal obligation “to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament”. The lack of progress towards this end was a major motivation for the negotiation of the TPNW.

Other complementary treaties include the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty of 1996 and regional treaties establishing nuclear-weapon-free zones in Latin America and the Caribbean, the South Pacific, Africa, Southeast Asia and Central Asia.

The TPNW is based on a body of law known as international humanitarian law, which limits the methods and means of warfare. Parties to an armed conflict must refrain from using weapons incapable of distinguishing between civilians and combatants, or those that inflict superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering.

The original copy of the TPNW. Credit: ICAN

Banned weapons

Biological weapons banned in 1972

Chemical weapons banned in 1993

Anti-personnel mines banned in 1997

Cluster munitions banned in 2008

Nuclear weapons banned in 2017

Bringing more nations on board

Any nation may join the TPNW at any time. Those that are currently reluctant to do so might reassess their positions as the treaty’s membership grows larger and the demands of their citizens grow louder.

This has been the case in the past for other treaties. France and China, for example, opposed the Non-Proliferation Treaty when it was negotiated but felt compelled to join it decades later.

The world is rapidly changing, and today’s leaders will not remain in power forever. Future governments might accept the merits of the treaty where current governments do not.

Nations that have joined the TPNW are required to encourage others to come on board, with the ultimate goal of “universal adherence”.

Joining the treaty sends a clear message that nuclear weapons are unacceptable and must be abolished. At a time of increasing nuclear dangers, it offers the best hope for eliminating the worst weapons.

“Let us seize now the unique opportunities brought to us by this treaty and bring the era of nuclear weapons to an end.”

– International Committee of the Red Cross, 2020

A meeting of parties to the TPNW in New York in 2025. Credit: ICAN

Disarmers: South Africa and Kazakhstan

Two leading proponents of the TPNW, South Africa and Kazakhstan, have shown through past actions that nuclear disarmament is possible.

When Kazakhstan gained its independence in 1991 following the collapse of the Soviet Union, more than 1,400 nuclear weapons remained on its territory. It opted to relinquish them all, recognising that its security was best achieved through disarmament.

South Africa reached the same conclusion at the end of the Apartheid era in the early 1990s, voluntarily dismantling its entire arsenal of nuclear bombs – an act later verified by the International Atomic Energy Agency.

Leaders from both nations have expressed great pride in their contributions to achieving a nuclear-weapon-free world, urging others to follow suit.

Casings for South Africa’s nuclear bombs.

Action for abolition

Nuclear weapons were built with human hands and can be dismantled with human hands. There are no technical barriers, only political ones. Tens of thousands of nuclear weapons have already been taken apart.

With leadership and political will, further progress towards disarmament could be achieved very rapidly. The fact that large geographic regions have already been declared free of nuclear weapons suggests that, one day, the entire world could be.

Historically, some of the greatest breakthroughs in the field of nuclear arms control were achieved at times of high international tension. A crisis can focus leaders’ minds and force them to explore new pathways forward.

But progress will always depend on a powerful grassroots movement for change, involving concerned citizens from all walks of life. The strong, enduring global taboo that exists today against the use of nuclear weapons is the result of decades of popular resistance.

There are many ways that individuals can contribute to the cause of eliminating the world’s worst weapons. Here are some of them:

A torchlight procession through Oslo, Norway, in support of the TPNW. Credit: Kristian Laemmle-Ruff

Educate:

Share information with friends, family members and colleagues about the urgency of abolishing nuclear weapons. Write articles and letters to the editor, post content on social media, and organise public forums, teach-ins and film screenings.

Raising awareness about the harm that nuclear weapons inflict on people and the environment is especially important. Too often, education about nuclear weapons focuses instead on the men who invented and dropped the weapons in 1945.

The first-hand testimonies of survivors from Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and of people harmed by nuclear testing, can help shift attitudes and motivate action.

Paper cranes

In Japan, paper cranes are traditionally a symbol of good health and a long life. Today, they are also recognised internationally as a symbol of peace, and can be used to spark important conversations on the urgent need to eliminate nuclear weapons.

As a two-year-old girl, Sadako Sasaki was exposed to radiation from the Hiroshima bomb. Years later, she was diagnosed with leukaemia – a delayed effect of radiation – and she set herself the goal of folding one thousand paper cranes while in hospital, hoping that it would bring her good health.

She persevered and reached her goal but, tragically, grew weaker by the day and died at the age of 12.

Ever since, children across Japan and throughout the world have folded paper cranes to show their support for the elimination of nuclear weapons.

Why not mail or hand deliver paper cranes to elected representatives in your country, with a letter requesting their support for the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons?

Thousands of paper cranes adorning a monument in Nagasaki. Credit: ICAN

Advocate:

Write to, phone or meet with decision-makers in your country to seek their support for the total abolition of nuclear weapons.

Since 2017, thousands of parliamentarians across the political spectrum have responded to the demands of concerned citizens and signed an ICAN pledge to promote adherence to the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (pledge.icanw.org).

Hundreds of cities, from Washington DC to Paris to Sydney, have also formally supported the treaty, signing onto an ICAN appeal (cities.icanw.org).

You need not be an expert to make your voice heard. What matters is that you recognise the gravity of the threat and the urgency of action.

ICAN convenes parliamentarians from across the world. Credit: Derek French

Protest:

Non-violent protest is an important way for people to convey their rejection of nuclear weapons. It can take many forms, including rallies, marches, blockades and vigils.

For decades, members of the global peace and disarmament movement have held protests, large and small, to draw attention to the cause. Countless actions have occurred at sites where nuclear weapons are built and deployed, at universities involved in their development, and outside national parliaments.

Undoubtedly, mass protests have helped bring an end to nuclear testing, halt the expansion of nuclear arsenals, prevent any use of nuclear weapons in war since 1945, and build pressure for disarmament.

More direct action is needed today.

An anti-nuclear action in Melbourne, Australia. Credit: Jesse Boylan

Divest:

In some nuclear-armed nations, companies are involved in the production of nuclear weapons and their components, and financial institutions provide capital to make this work possible.

Divesting from the nuclear weapons industry is a tangible contribution that financial institutions can make to disarmament. Hundreds have already done so, committing to nuclear-weapon-free finance, in line with the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (divest.icanw.org).

Individuals can contact their banks and pension funds and insist that nuclear weapons companies be excluded from their investments.

About the campaign

The International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN) is a global coalition of non-government organisations with a simple mission: to convince every nation in the world to join and fully implement the landmark Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.

Founded in Melbourne, Australia, in 2007, the campaign was inspired by the successful movement to outlaw anti-personnel mines a decade earlier on humanitarian grounds. Today, ICAN is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland.

“We need a determined worldwide movement to outlaw and abolish nukes. To get there in this generation, we need to build the wave of public opinion into a mighty crescendo: a massive, surging, irresistible force which carries us all the way to absolutely zero nukes. Without it, even the most inspirational of leaders will falter on the way.”

– Bill Williams, co-founder of ICAN, 2006

An ICAN action in Geneva. Credit: Aude Catimel

Since its inception, ICAN has focused on building a powerful groundswell of public opposition to nuclear weapons, including by amplifying the voices of nuclear bomb survivors from Hiroshima and Nagasaki and people harmed by nuclear testing.

Working alongside the International Committee of the Red Cross, the UN secretariat and like-minded governments, ICAN has held awareness-raising events, published pioneering research, organised global days of action and made the case for abolition directly to senior decision-makers.

[FACT]

Fact: The International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons currently has 700 partner organisations in 113 nations.

[/FACT]

Setsuko Thurlow

As a 13-year-old girl, Setsuko Thurlow was knocked unconscious by the blast from the nuclear bomb dropped on Hiroshima. She became trapped in the rubble of a collapsed building, but eventually managed to crawl free.

“Most of my classmates in that building were burned to death alive,” she recalled. “I saw all around me utter, unimaginable devastation … The foul stench of burnt human flesh filled the air.”

A living witness to the horrors of nuclear war, Setsuko jointly accepted the Nobel Peace Prize awarded to ICAN in 2017. “Every second of every day, nuclear weapons endanger everyone we love and everything we hold dear,” she warned.

“We must not tolerate this insanity any longer.”

She urged world leaders to sign the recently adopted Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. “Let this be the beginning of the end of nuclear weapons,” she said. “Join this treaty; forever eradicate the threat of nuclear annihilation.”

Setsuko Thurlow at the Nobel Peace Prize ceremony in Norway in 2017. Credit: Jo Straube

Nobel Peace Prize

In 2017, ICAN was honoured with the Nobel Peace Prize “for its work to draw attention to the catastrophic humanitarian consequences of any use of nuclear weapons and for its ground-breaking efforts to achieve a treaty-based prohibition of such weapons”.

“It is our firm conviction that ICAN, more than anyone else, has in the past year given the efforts to achieve a world without nuclear weapons a new direction and new vigour.”

– Norwegian Nobel Committee, 2017

The prize is a tribute to the tireless efforts of the countless campaigners and concerned citizens worldwide who, ever since the dawn of the nuclear age, have loudly protested against nuclear weapons, insisting that they be abolished forever.

This is not a distant dream, but an urgent necessity. Future generations must grow up free from this terrible scourge.

An action with students in Hiroshima. Credit: Takeo Nakaoku

Sign up for ICAN alerts

Keywords

nuclear weapons; nuclear bombs; atomic bombs; hydrogen bombs; thermonuclear weapons; weapons of mass destruction; Hiroshima; Nagasaki; atomic bombings; nuclear power; nuclear arsenals; nuclear weapon programmes; nuclear testing; nuclear test sites; International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN); Nobel Peace Prize; Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW); Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT); nuclear-weapon-free zones; nuclear disarmament; nuclear non-proliferation; nuclear abolition; anti-nuclear movement; peace; activism; divestment; nuclear risks; radiation; nuclear fallout; nuclear winter; hypocentre; paper cranes; hibakusha; indigenous peoples; uranium; plutonium; nuclear fission; nuclear fusion; nuclear waste; nuclear missiles; nuclear submarines; nuclear accidents; nuclear deterrence; nuclear-sharing; nuclear umbrella

Rudi juu